Explores Indian history and spiritual traditions through a reflective and analytical lens, blending historical critique, cultural insights, and diasporic perspectives to offer thoughtful interpretations of religion, philosophy, and identity.
A total solar eclipse will occur on 12 August 2026, passing over Greenland, Iceland, and Spain. It is the first total solar eclipse visible in mainland Europe since 1999.
Have you ever wondered when was the oldest solar eclipse on record?
Although Rig Veda was compiled about 3,500 years ago, it contains information from observations that were made much earlier.
Rig Veda 5.40.5
yat tvā sūrya svarbhānus tamasāvidhyad āsuraḥ |
akṣetravid yathā mugdho bhuvanāny adīdhayuḥ ||
Translation: "O Surya, when the Asura Swarbhanu pierced you through and through with darkness, all creatures looked like one who is bewildered, who knows not the place where he is standing."
Rig Veda 5.40.6
svarbhānor adha yad indra māyā avo divo vartamānā avāhan |
Translation: "When you, O Indra, struck down the magic arts of Swarbhanu spreading beneath the sky, Atri discovered Surya concealed in the gloom that stayed his functions, using his fourth sacred prayer."
tvam mitro asi satyarādhās tau mehāvataṃ varuṇaś ca rājā ||
Translation: (Surya speaks to Atri): "Let not the oppressor consume me with this dread through anger, for I am yours, O Atri. You are Mitra, whose blessings are true; let you and King Varuna be my helpers here."
atriḥ sūryasya divi cakṣur ādhāt svarbhānor apa māyā aghukṣat ||
Translation: "The sage Atri, setting the press-stones, serving the Gods with praise and offerings, re-established the eye of Surya in heaven and made Swarbhanu’s magic vanish."
Rig Veda 5.40.9
yaṁ vai sūryaṁ svarbhānus tamasāvidhyad āsuraḥ |
atrayas tam anvavindan na hy anye aśaknuvan ||
Translation: "The Sun, whom Swarbhanu the Asura had pierced with darkness, the family of Atri found again. None other had the power to do so."
The Asura Swarbhanu later evolved into Rahu.
In 2024, astronomers Mayank Vahia (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai) and Mitsuru Soma (National Astronomical Observatory of Japan) re-analyzed Atri’s account alongside commentary in later texts like the Sankhyayana Brahmana. Source: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.19733
Using computers to model every total solar eclipse visible from the Indian subcontinent over the last 10,000 years that met these exact sky conditions, the team narrowed the possibilities down to two candidate events:
22 October 4202 BCE or 19 October 3811 BCE
Atri's Eclipse represents the oldest specific, documented observation of a solar eclipse in human history. This demonstrates that the ancient people were closely observing and tracking celestial dynamics over 6,000 years ago. This recordings were then passed down orally as part of the Rig Veda.
I often encourage those who follow my writings to explore South Indian folk deities. There are many deities across the region, each with its own stories, rituals, and variations. However, not all of them are suitable for worship by everyone.
Some worship practices are secret and best kept within specific families. If performed incorrectly, the consequences can be severe — it’s like playing Five Finger Fillet on fast mode with your eyes shut.
Lately, I’ve noticed a growing trend where people try to popularize certain folk deities and build a following around them. One such example is Kateri, also affectionately called Kateriamman by her devotees.
The word Kateri in Tamil literally means “vampire.” While the term directly translates to Pontianak in Malay, Kateri more closely resembles another local spirit known as Langsuir.
Traditionally, Kateri is said to dwell near kaadu (forests) and yeri (lakes) — hence the name. Long before the rise of organized religions, ancient people revered the spirits of the land, both benevolent and malevolent. Kateri was often seen as a fierce spirit capable of disturbing humans, and in Tamil shamanic traditions, she was sometimes invoked to bring harm to one’s enemies.
AI generated image showing Kateri worship by early ancestors
Over time, early settlers who lived near such spirits would have performed rituals to appease them, seeking protection and blessings. Through generations, these spirits became kula deivams — family guardian deities — for those bloodlines. Sacred pacts or spiritual agreements would have been made between them and the Kateri.
This is why venerating a deity like Kateri without ancestral connection can be dangerous. If I were to meditate upon her or invoke her in my home without lineage ties, it could lead to chaos. But for those whose families have long worshipped her as their kula deivam, her presence brings protection, not harm.
So think carefully before venerating Kateri. These are not deities meant for everyone — they belong to those whose bloodlines are bound to them.
AI generated art depicting a Kateri inside a forest
Today, Malays in Malaysia are Muslims. However, the Islamization of the Malays did not happen overnight. It was a gradual process that unfolded over several centuries, probably beginning around the 13th century, and gained strong momentum during the rise of several sultanates such as Aceh Sultanate, Pasai Sultanate, Patani Sultanate, Demak Sultanate and Malacca Sultanate. This period came after the fall of the Srivijaya empire and the later Majapahit empire. The Srivijaya Empire was known for its patronage of Mahayana Buddhism, while Majapahit supported the Saiva Hindu tradition, also known as Saivism.
Before the influence of Mahayana or Saiva traditions, the Malays would have had their own indigenous religion. It likely involved the worship of nature spirits and ancestors. Over time, elements of this early belief system may have blended with the Buddhist and Hindu practices that arrived later. Both Saivism and Mahayana Buddhism are deeply rooted in Tantric teachings and share many similarities in deities and symbolism. Although they differ in philosophy, the deities they venerate are often the same.
Mahakala from Candi Singhasari, Indonesia. Image Credit: Singhasari Museum
During the height of Srivijaya and Majapahit, the worship of Tantric deities was very common. People revered not only major deities such as Siva, Vishnu, Ganesa, Durga, Avalokitesvara, and Vairocana but also attendant deities of Siva like Nandisvara and Mahakala. Nandisvara is often depicted as white, while Mahakala is black. The name Mahakala literally means “Great Time” or “Great Black.” He is known as one of Siva’s loyal attendants (Rudra/Siva Gana) and serves as a guardian, either as a dvarapala (door protector) or kshetrapala (guardian of sacred grounds). Both figures are mentioned in the Saiva scriptures known as the Saivagamas.
In Tamil folk tradition, Nandisvara is known as Madan or Madasamy, the bull deity, while Mahakala is revered as Periya Karuppar, the great black deity. They continue to function as guardian deities in rural temples and are deeply respected by the people.
When we look back at the pre-Islamic Malay world, it is not surprising to find similar names and figures in their local spiritual practices. The white bull of Nandisvara may have survived in the Malay imagination as Lembu Putih, while Mahakala could have continued in another form known as Awang Hitam.
AI generated artistic impression of Awang Hitam
In Malay bomoh (shaman) practice, Awang Hitam is described as a powerful spiritual helper or guardian spirit, often appearing as a dark, shadowy male figure who assists the bomoh in rituals of healing, protection, and sometimes sorcery.
The word Awang has several meanings. It can be used as a respectful male title, similar to “Mr,” or to refer to a male child or "fellow". The word hitam means black. Therefore, the name Awang Hitam, meaning “Black Fellow,” reflects both his mysterious nature and his connection to the unseen world, which closely resembles the Mahakala archetype.
Awang Hitam is believed to originate from ancestral spirits, ancient warriors, or elemental beings. He is also called as Hitam Seri Penakluk meaning "The Illustrious Black Conqueror".
There is also another guardian known as Datuk Panglima Hitam meaning "Black Commander". He is venerated by the Mah Meri tribe of Selangor. A special prayer will be conducted for him on the first day of their annual Hari Moyang (ancestor's day).
Celebration ceremony of Datuk Panglima Hitam. Image credit: zafigo
Karuppar, the Tamil equivalent of Awang Hitam or Dato Panglima Hitam. Picture credit suji suji
Awang Hitam embodies strength, loyalty, and spiritual authority. The bomoh may invoke him through trance or chanting to guard against evil, retrieve lost souls, or empower charms. However, his power must be treated with respect, as he can protect or harm depending on how he is approached. In Malay mysticism, Awang Hitam represents the delicate balance between light and darkness that every spiritual practitioner must understand.
From the Islamic perspective, invoking Awang Hitam or other spirits is considered syirik, meaning an act of associating partners with God, and is strictly forbidden. The Muslims also consider such guardians as Jinns. As a result, these practices have largely faded today. However, in earlier centuries, they were still known among traditional healers.
The British scholar R.J Wilkinson wrote down about these spirits in his book Malay Beliefs (1906). Similarly R. O. Winstedt documented these traditions in his book Shaman, Saiva and Sufi: A Study of the Evolution of Malay Magic (1924). These writings offers a glimpse into a time when Hindu, Buddhist, and indigenous Malay beliefs once blended before Islam became the defining faith of the Malay people.
On land we have one supreme divinity who is in some mysterious way associated with the colour black, as the "Black Youth" (awang hitam) or the "Black Spirit" (jin hitam, hantu hitam), the King of the Earth, whose foot is on the heart of the world and whose hands are on the gate of heaven. The four deities of the sea and the one "black deity" of the land represent in all, probability the Gods of some ancient local race whose blood runs in the veins of the Malays.
R.J Wilkinson
In the Malay pantheon there is a mysterious black Awang, addressed by actors as king of the earth, who "walks along the veins of the earth and sleeps at its gate." Apparently, therefore, he is identified with Siva, and this identification, if correct, suggests a high place for this forgotten figure of some early cult. But in a Proto−Malay charm to propitiate the aforesaid spirits of the sea, Warrior Awang figures as their servant, who climbs the mast of ship in distress, a young man with "hairy chest, red eyes, black skin and frizzy hair." A Kelantan charm, also, depicts him as a haunter of forest undergrowth, "a span in height, with bald temples, frizzy hair, red eyes, white teeth, broad chest, and feet and hands disfigured with skin disease." This is a good picture of a Negrito, member of the oldest race in Malaysia, but it may be a posthumous description as applied to this god or godling of a primitive cult, who rides the storm and can cause ague and disease.
R. O. Winstedt
Do you have any personal reflections or opinions on the tales of Awang Hitam? Perhaps you know of local variants of the stories, or have additional historical or cultural context that could shed more light on this figure?
Please share your thoughts and any information you may have in the comments section.
"I don’t worship my kula deivam. I don’t perform rituals as my ancestors did. Yet, I seem to be living a better life. In fact, I am wealthier than those who continue their kula deivam worship. How is this possible?"
Maha Periyava once explained karma using the example of a bicycle, and the same can be applied here.
When you ride a bicycle, after pedalling for some time, the wheel continues to move even if you stop pedalling. You can still cover some distance without any effort because of the momentum you already built up.
This is your present life. You may not worship your kula deivam, but your ancestors did so sincerely and wholeheartedly.
The blessings and fruits of their devotion are what you are enjoying now. The “bicycle” is still moving because they pedalled hard for you.
But remember...no bicycle can keep moving forever without pedalling. Eventually, it slows down.
In the same way, if you do not continue your kula deivam worship, the blessings will diminish, and your children or grandchildren may suffer the loss.
So, the responsibility falls on you, not only to enjoy the smooth ride but also to “start pedalling” again.
Your worship today ensures that the cycle of blessings continues for future generations.
Sri Muniswarar temple at Jalan Baru, Prai. Image Source: Penang Travel Tips
Temples are amazing places. They're for praying, but they're also where all kinds of events happen. From huge public festivals to small, private family events, there's always something going on. And with all those events comes food. But not all temple food is the same, and knowing the difference can save you a whole lot of awkwardness.
Think of temple events in two simple categories:
Private Events:These are booked by families for their personal ceremonies, like an ear-piercing, an engagement, or a wedding. They rent the hall and pay for everything.
Public Events:These are things everyone's invited to, like common prayers or big festivals like tiruvizha. When you go to these, the food served afterward is for anyone and everyone.
The food at these events also has two names, and this is where it gets important:
Virunthu:This is the food served at a private event. It's paid for by the host for their invited guests. You don't just show up and grab the briyani unless you were on the guest list.
Annadhanam: This is the food served for the public. It's meant for anyone who wants to eat, no invitation needed. This is the food you can freely enjoy after a common prayer or during a big public festival like tiruvizha.
Here's the problem: A lot of people see food at a temple and just assume it's annadhanam, for the public. But that’s not always the case, and it's a huge mistake.
Picture this....You go to a Mariamman temple on a Saturday morning. You see a family conducting ear pericing ceremony with a big group of relatives, and there’s food in the hall. You might think, “Oh, free breakfast!” But you'd be wrong. That’s a virunthu. That family booked the hall and paid for all that food for their guests. Walking in and eating would be like crashing their event.
So next time you're at a temple and you see food, take a second. Is it a public event, or does it look like a private family function? Don't just assume every meal is a public offering. Respect the people who paid for the food and the guests they invited.
I've been going to temples for years, and I've never had a single issue with food because I stick to a simple rule: I only eat if I'm specifically invited to an event or if the host makes it clear it's an annadhanam for everyone.
It’s a simple courtesy that shows respect for both the temple and the people who use it.
The Vilayuthamudaya Ayyanar temple of Kochadai, Madurai.This temple houses many kula deivams such as Muthiahsamy, Agni Veerabadrar, Karuppayi Amman, Sangilikaruppu, Kaluvadikaruppu, Meiyandi Amman, Nagappasamy, Sannasisamy, Aadipoosari, Pechiamman, Muthukaruppusamy, Irulappasamy, Veeranasamy, Rakkayi Amman, Irulayee Amman, Chappani Karuppu, Sonaisamy, Muniyandisamy and Badrakali Amman. Image Credit: Tamil Nadu Tourism
The southern districts of Tamil Nadu, preserve a unique system of kula deivam(clan deity) worship known as “21 Panthi, 63 Senai.” In this tradition, the kula deivam of a family is usually one among the deities in the panthi structure. Families that trace their roots to this region often belong to one of these lineages.
A panthi is a cluster of deities led by a chief deity. Different types of panthis exist, such as the Gurunathan Panthi, Ayyanar Panthi and Karuppanasamy Panthi. Each panthi has a presiding deity who is supported by a number of manthiri deivam (minister deities).
The number of ministers may differ, with some panthis having five while others have seven. Each minister is accompanied by more deities, and together they make up a group of 21 deities that represent 21 family bloodlines of the region.
In addition to the panthi deities, there are parivara deivam (attendant deities) that forms the senai. Each panthi deivam will have 3 attendants and their total number across the system is 63. These attendants play an important role in rituals and offerings by serving the 21 kula deivams of the panthi, thus forming the wider circle of the temple’s sacred order.
It is important to note that there are some variations in which deities are included in the panthi, and this differs from place to place . What remains common is the structure of 21 main deities and 63 attendants.
I am currently gathering more detailed information on this system of worship and will share further insights in the future. If you have any information from your ancestral village, feel free to share in the comments section.
I first wrote about Muniswaran worship in my blog in 2013. After a long interval, I have decided to revisit the subject and add further details. My intention is to provide a deeper understanding of the traditions, origins, and symbolism surrounding the Munis, which I believe will be valuable for devotees of Ayya and those interested in the wider practice of folk guardianship in Tamil culture.
While Muniandy is often regarded as simply another name for Muniswaran, or perhaps an older form of the name, certain temples preserve a different understanding. For example, at the Sri Maha Athi Muneeswarar Temple in Sentul, Muniandy is revered as the guardian or munnadiyan of the presiding deity Athi Muniswaran. This form is also called Nondi Muniyandi, and it parallels other munnadiyan figures such as Nondi Karuppar, Nondi Sonaiyar, Nondi Samayan, and Nondi Veeran. Image source Sri Maha Athi Muneeswarar Temple
Before proceeding further, I recommend reading the following two articles to gain a clearer understanding of Muniswaran Worship – Part II.
The most common names for Muni guardians are Muniswaran, Muniyappan, and Munisamy. Their origins are often traced back to the Sapta Muniswarans (7 Muniswarans) who descended to protect Goddess Pachaiamman. In some traditions, they are regarded as folk versions of the Sapta Rishis.
The iconography of the Munis in the northern districts typically depicts them in a seated position, holding a sword in the right hand and at times, a shield or other weapons. Some are also shown with a trident while seated. Even in Bangalore, the Munis are popularly addressed as Muniswarans. The Sapta Muniswarans are usually depicted in different colours.
In the southern districts, the most common names for the Muni guardians are Muniyandi and Muniayya, although Muniswaran is also used, possibly due to recent influence.
There are three main traditions regarding the origins of Muni worship in the south:
Muniyandi of Alanganallur – Said to be of Malayalam (Kerala) origin. According to folklore, he was placed inside a box and set afloat in the river. A poor family found him, raised him, and later, their descendants deified him, becoming the hereditary priests of his temple.
Paandi Muni – A couple once dreamt of a Muni who revealed that he was the former Pandya king Neduncheliyan. They unearthed his idol buried in the ground and began to worship him, establishing his temple.
Mottai Gopuram Muniandy – Rooted in Madurai folklore. During the divine wedding of Meenakshi and Sundareswarar (Shiva), many bhutas attended. After the ceremony, most returned, but Shiva and Meenakshi requested one chief bhuta, a powerful guardian, to remain in Madurai. He became the guardian of the northern tower (Mottai Gopuram) of the temple. Currently he is known as Maha Muniswarar.
In contrast to the north, most of the southern Munis are usually shown in a standing position, holding an aruval (sickle) or a club in the right hand, and a trident in the left.
Muniswaran in Jainism and Buddhism
12th century CE statue of Manjushri, the Buddhist Bodhisattva of wisdom. It was reportedly stolen from a temple near Bodh Gaya in Bihar. It was displayed at the Ackland Art Museum, University of North Carolina.
Some of the Munis worshipped today as Muniswaran may have roots in Jain and Buddhist traditions. Take a look at the statue of Manjushri above. If we add a thick moustache, he could easily pass off as a Tamil village guardian deity! Makes you wonder if some of the guardian gods we worship today as Muniswaran were once part of the Buddhist pantheon.
As noted earlier in Part I, the word Muni simply means “sage” or “mendicant.” It is widely used across both religions. The Buddha himself is often called Śākya Muni (the Sage of the Śākya clan), and Jainism also speaks of numerous Munis and ascetic teachers.
Main Deity at Pandi Temple is Buddha, Claims Archaeologist. Click here to read full article by The New Indian Express.
Abishegam being done for Paandi Muniswarar
A striking detail is that certain Muniswarans are portrayed as vegetarians. In Tamil folk tradition, guardian spirits are usually offered blood sacrifices and meat. However, some Munis are honored in a more saintly, ascetic manner, resembling Jain and Buddhist monks. Both Jainism and Buddhism prohibit animal sacrifice and offerings of meat, which could explain this divergence in practice.
There is also a Jain Tīrthaṅkara known as Munisuvrata, whose name resonates with the title Muniswaran. This points to possible shared etymological or cultural connections between Jain saints and the folk Munis of South India.
The term Munīśvara (lord of mendicants) is found in classical Jain literature. For example, in the 11th-century Jñānārṇava, a treatise on Jain Yoga by Śubhacandra, Munīśvaras are mentioned as enlightened ascetics who have destroyed delusion (kṣīṇamohair munīśvaraiḥ). They are described as authorities on meditation, preserving teachings found in the Pūrvas and Aṅgas.
“The fourfold division (of meditation) is explained by the lords of mendicants (munīśvara), who are free of delusion. Even so, no one today is capable of describing more than a fraction of it.” (Jñānārṇava)
The name Munīśvara also appears in Jain lineage records. In the Bṛhadgaccha-gurvāvalī, a text preserving the teacher-lineages of the Jain community, we find mention of Munīśvara Sūri. These records provide details such as his literary contributions, image consecrations, and even his participation in debates with non-Jains.
Such references suggest that the name Munīśvara was widely used among ascetic teachers in Jainism. The title “Munīśvara” was already a mark of high ascetic authority in Jainism. Over time, it may have merged with Tamil folk frameworks, where spirits and guardians were localized and worshipped.
The name similarity with Munisuvrata Tīrthaṅkara further strengthens the idea of shared religious vocabulary and cultural borrowing.
The Symbolism of Vegetarian Muniswarans
The fierce and non-vegetarian bali devata Samaya Karuppar of Paandi Muniswarar temple, Madurai. Image source: finding god within
The vegetarian Muniswarans in Tamil tradition may represent an overlay of Jain and Buddhist ascetic ideals onto older folk guardian practices. For example, the idol of Paandi Muniswaran is believed to represent a Buddhist or Jain monk, which explains his veneration as a vegetarian deity.
In keeping with this ascetic character, Paandi Muniswaran himself does not receive animal sacrifices or meat offerings. Instead, such offerings are directed to his companion and protector, Samaya Karuppar, who fulfills the fierce guardian role. This dual arrangement reflects the blending of ascetic traditions with folk practices, where the saintly figure embodies restraint while the protector channels the community’s need for powerful and aggressive guardianship.
The Muniswarar of the famous Jalan Baru Muniswarar Temple, Prai is a vegetarian deity. The blood sacrifice and non-vegetarian offerings are given to Madurai Veeran who stands opposite of him as his munnadiyan. This temple was formerly known as Sri Muniyandi Temple.
In some cases, vegetarian Muniswarans could have been modelled on Ayyanar (Dharma Śāstā), since Ayyanar himself is often regarded as a vegetarian deity that functions as the chief of other guardian deities. This overlap is especially evident in the southern districts, where certain Muniswarans such as Dharma Muniswaran are worshipped as saintly guardians.
These vegetarian Muniswarans of southern districts are often accompanied by a Karuppar who serves as their protector deity. For example, while Paandi Muniswaran of Madurai has Samaya Karuppar, the Dharma Muniswaran of Koorankottai has Sangili Karuppar as his protector.
The history of Koorankottai Dharma Muniswarar.
This pairing closely mirrors the traditional relationship of Dharma Śāstā and Karuppar or even Buddhism's Avalokitesvara and Mahakala, Manjushri and Achala, where the Muniswaran embodies dharma and restraint while Karuppar functions as his fierce enforcer and his violent emanation.
The symbolism suggests a continuity of village religious imagination in which compassion and ferocity are balanced by assigning complementary roles to deities.
I will continue to share further insights on Muniswaran worship whenever I come across new information, so that this living tradition can be better understood and appreciated.
