From Indus Valley to Tamil Nadu: The 4,600-Year Heritage of the Mukkulathor

Seal from Mohenjo-Daro depicting a bull baiting scene. The earliest reference to Jallikattu.

History has a fascinating way of connecting dots across thousands of years and vast geographic distances. 

When researchers examine the ancient symbols of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which flourished around 2600 BCE, they often uncover more than just old markings; they find clues about the very roots of modern communities. 

Epigraphic studies of the Indus Script suggest a profound connection between the ancient people of the Indus Valley and the traditional Tamil communities of present day South India.

This groundbreaking research is highlighted in the paper Toponyms, Directions and Tribal Names in the Indus Script, authored by the renowned epigrapher, the late Iravatham Mahadevan alongside M. V. Bhaskar. Published in the academic volume Walking with the Unicorn: Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient South Asia, it is a felicitation volume honoring scholar Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 

This study bridges ancient archaeological artifacts with Dravidian linguistics. By decoding ideograms and comparing ancient inscriptions with classical literature, the authors present compelling evidence linking ancient Indus societies directly to South Indian societies.

Among the most compelling findings in this research is the historical continuity of the Mukkulathor community, which includes the Kallar, Maravar, and Agamudaiyar (Agambadiyar) tribes. Linguistic and archaeological evidence indicates that these ancestral warrior tribes originally inhabited hilly regions before migrating down to the river plains. 

In the Indus inscriptions, specific ideograms and paired signs frequently appear that correspond directly to ancient tribal titles and regional names linked to these communities.

This is unquestionably the most compelling evidence that the Tamil Maṟavar (Kaḷḷar and Maḻavar) have their roots in the Indus Civilization.

One striking example is found in the ancient symbols representing hills and terrain, which connect directly to the Mukkulattor. Furthermore, terms rooted in ancient vocabulary, such as kaḷ and mal appear in the script alongside signs for chieftains, pointing to a structured social organization led by tribal leaders long before their migration southward. Over centuries of movement and adaptation, these groups integrated into agricultural and communal life while preserving their distinct martial heritage.

Cultural traditions offer an even more vivid bridge across the millennia. Consider the ancient sport of bull-baiting, famously known today as jallikattu (jalli-k-kaṭṭu) or ēru taḷuvutal. 

While this tradition is famously celebrated predominanthly among the Mukkulathor in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu today, remarkable visual evidence of bull-baiting such as seals discovered at Mohenjo-daro proves that this practice was already alive and thriving during the height of the IVC. This striking cultural parallel ties the ancient Indus inhabitants directly to the historical traditions upheld by communities like the Kallar and Maravar.

Additional clues emerge when looking at ancient artifacts and regional folklore. For instance, archaeological discoveries like the miniature golden axe found in Pattanam, Kerala, bear uncanny resemblances to Indus ideograms and tie into ancient regional legends of land reclamation. These artifacts demonstrate how material culture, tool designs, and symbolic meanings traveled and evolved as ancient populations moved across the subcontinent, carrying their customs with them.

In Tamil tradition, the Kaḷḷar and the Maḻavar were two closely allied warrior tribes known for their valour. Hence they are referred to more frequently together as the Maṟavar ‘warriors’.......Kaḷḷar, Maṟavar and Akamuṭaiyār are also included in the common name Mukkulattōr ‘people of the three tribes’.

Ultimately, tracing the Mukkulathor community back to the days of the IVC highlights a deep, unbroken continuation of tribal identity that stretches back to 2600 BCE. By combining linguistics, archaeology, and the living traditions of bull-baiting and tribal organization, we see that the story of Tamil Nadu's ancient Mukkulathor community is deeply intertwined with the earliest chapters of human civilization on the subcontinent. 

It is a powerful reminder that our cultural roots often run much deeper and connect us across much greater distances than we ever might have imagined.

Past Article:
Minoan Bulls and Basque Goddess - A Possible Tamil Connection?

Are All Religions Really the Same?

Are all religions the same? Do they all teach the same things?

We would have grown up hearing from our elders that all religions teach the same thing and that they are essentially the same at the very core. But how true is this? 

Here are the five fundamental differences between Abrahamic traditions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) and Dharmic traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism):

1. The Nature of Time

Abrahamic: Time is linear. It has a definitive beginning (Creation), a progression through history, and a final end point (Judgment Day / Last Judgment).

Dharmic: Time is cyclic. The universe goes through endless, repeating loops of creation, preservation, destruction, and rest (Yugas or Kalpas) with no ultimate beginning or end.

For Abrahamic traditions, a linear timeline gives history purpose and urgency—every human life gets a single, decisive term on Earth, making moral choices eternally impactful. For Dharmic traditions, time operates like the turning of a wheel or the changing of seasons, where soul progress happens across vast cosmic eras over countless lifetimes.

2. Concept of the Divine and Authority

Abrahamic: Strictly monotheistic (with variations like the Trinity in Christianity). God is an external Creator who exists outside of His creation, acts as a cosmic judge, and reveals His will through prophets and specific holy scriptures.

Dharmic: Highly pluralistic. The Divine can be viewed as an absolute, all-pervading reality within everything (Pantheism/Monism), expressed through many deities (Polytheism), or not centered on a creator God at all (such as in Buddhism and Jainism).

In Abrahamic traditions, God is transcendent—existing completely outside and distinct from the physical universe He created. Divine authority flows top-down through sacred revelations, prophets, and scriptures (the Bible, Quran, Torah). In Dharmic traditions, the divine is primarily immanent—permeating every aspect of existence, including the self. Authority often comes from direct experiential realization (Gnosis or Bodhi) and personal insight rather than strict adherence to a external dogma.

3. Ultimate Human Problem and Goal

Abrahamic: The primary issue is sin and separation from God due to disobedience. The ultimate goal is salvation, leading to eternal life in Heaven or paradise near the Creator.

Dharmic: The primary issue is ignorance (Avidya) and illusion (Maya), which trap souls in an endless loop of suffering and rebirth (Samsara). The ultimate goal is liberation (Moksha, Nirvana, or Mukti)—waking up to the ultimate truth and escaping the cycle entirely.

Abrahamic faiths diagnose the human problem as moral failure—a broken relationship between a righteous Creator and a rebellious creature. Redemption requires divine grace, forgiveness, and reconciliation. In contrast, Dharmic traditions diagnose the human problem as epistemological failure—misunderstanding the true nature of reality and clinging to temporary things. Redemption requires enlightenment, self-realization, and waking up from spiritual blindness.

4. The Path after Death

Abrahamic: Humans have one earthly life. After death, the soul awaits judgment, leading permanently to either eternal reward (Heaven) or eternal punishment (Hell).

Dharmic: Humans experience multiple lifetimes. The soul (or consciousness) undergoes reincarnation, where the circumstances of the next life are directly shaped by the moral law of cause and effect (Karma).

In Abrahamic faiths, death is a permanent turning point—a one-shot exam where a single lifetime dictates an eternal destiny in Heaven or Hell. In Dharmic traditions, death is merely changing clothes. Reincarnation acts as an ongoing educational process; Karma functions not as arbitrary punishment, but as a natural law of cause and effect that carries over across lifetimes until the soul reaches full spiritual maturity.

5. Spiritual Practice and Truth

Abrahamic: Emphasizes faith, obedience, and belief in specific doctrines, covenants, or historical revelations. Truth is often exclusive, delivered through a definitive text or covenant.

Dharmic: Emphasizes experiential realization, self-discipline, and duty (Dharma) through practices like yoga, meditation, and ethical living. Truth is often seen as universal and accessible through many different paths.  

Abrahamic traditions lean on revelational authority—truth is revealed by God at specific historical moments, recorded in holy texts, and embraced through faith, repentance, and obedience to divine law. Dharmic traditions lean on empirical spirituality—truth is a reality to be directly experienced and verified through self-realization, meditation, and fulfilling one's Dharma (cosmic and personal duty).

I hope this breakdown brings clarity to the fundamental differences between these two broad traditions. Personally, I choose to remain within the Dharmic tradition, as its core philosophy aligns naturally with my own view of existence. I find deep truth in the understanding that time is cyclical—that the universe moves through continuous, endless cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction, just as reflected in the sacred symbolism of the Kalachakra. For me, this framework honors life not as a single, rigid test, but as an evolving cosmic journey toward ultimate realization.

If you found this comparison insightful, feel free to share this article with your friends and family to help encourage open, thoughtful discussions about faith, philosophy, and truth.

When Sage Atri Tracked the First Recorded Solar Eclipse

Ancient men observing solar eclipse

A total solar eclipse will occur on 12 August 2026, passing over Greenland, Iceland, and Spain. It is the first total solar eclipse visible in mainland Europe since 1999.

Have you ever wondered when was the oldest solar eclipse on record?

Although Rig Veda was compiled about 3,500 years ago, it contains information from observations that were made much earlier. 

Rig Veda 5.40.5

yat tvā sūrya svarbhānus tamasāvidhyad āsuraḥ | 

akṣetravid yathā mugdho bhuvanāny adīdhayuḥ ||

Translation: "O Surya, when the Asura Swarbhanu pierced you through and through with darkness, all creatures looked like one who is bewildered, who knows not the place where he is standing."

Rig Veda 5.40.6

svarbhānor adha yad indra māyā avo divo vartamānā avāhan |

gūḷhaṁ sūryaṁ tamasāpavratena turīyeṇa brahmaṇāvindad atriḥ ||

Translation: "When you, O Indra, struck down the magic arts of Swarbhanu spreading beneath the sky, Atri discovered Surya concealed in the gloom that stayed his functions, using his fourth sacred prayer."

Rig Veda 5.40.7

mā mām imaṃ tava santam atra irasyā drugdho bhiyasā ni gārīt |

tvam mitro asi satyarādhās tau mehāvataṃ varuṇaś ca rājā ||

Translation: (Surya speaks to Atri): "Let not the oppressor consume me with this dread through anger, for I am yours, O Atri. You are Mitra, whose blessings are true; let you and King Varuna be my helpers here."

Rig Veda 5.40.8

grāvṇo brahmā yuyujānaḥ saparyan kīriṇā devān namasopaśikṣan |

atriḥ sūryasya divi cakṣur ādhāt svarbhānor apa māyā aghukṣat ||

Translation: "The sage Atri, setting the press-stones, serving the Gods with praise and offerings, re-established the eye of Surya in heaven and made Swarbhanu’s magic vanish."

Rig Veda 5.40.9

yaṁ vai sūryaṁ svarbhānus tamasāvidhyad āsuraḥ |

atrayas tam anvavindan na hy anye aśaknuvan ||

Translation: "The Sun, whom Swarbhanu the Asura had pierced with darkness, the family of Atri found again. None other had the power to do so."

The Asura Swarbhanu later evolved into Rahu. 

In 2024, astronomers Mayank Vahia (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai) and Mitsuru Soma (National Astronomical Observatory of Japan) re-analyzed Atri’s account alongside commentary in later texts like the Sankhyayana Brahmana.
Source: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.19733

Using computers to model every total solar eclipse visible from the Indian subcontinent over the last 10,000 years that met these exact sky conditions, the team narrowed the possibilities down to two candidate events:

22 October 4202 BCE or 19 October 3811 BCE

Atri's Eclipse represents the oldest specific, documented observation of a solar eclipse in human history. This demonstrates that the ancient people were closely observing and tracking celestial dynamics over 6,000 years ago. This recordings were then passed down orally as part of the Rig Veda.

Before You Worship Kateri, Read This....

I often encourage those who follow my writings to explore South Indian folk deities. There are many deities across the region, each with its own stories, rituals, and variations. However, not all of them are suitable for worship by everyone. 

Some worship practices are secret and best kept within specific families. If performed incorrectly, the consequences can be severe — it’s like playing Five Finger Fillet on fast mode with your eyes shut.

Lately, I’ve noticed a growing trend where people try to popularize certain folk deities and build a following around them. One such example is Kateri, also affectionately called Kateriamman by her devotees. 

The word Kateri in Tamil literally means “vampire.” While the term directly translates to Pontianak in Malay, Kateri more closely resembles another local spirit known as Langsuir.

Traditionally, Kateri is said to dwell near kaadu (forests) and yeri (lakes) — hence the name. Long before the rise of organized religions, ancient people revered the spirits of the land, both benevolent and malevolent. Kateri was often seen as a fierce spirit capable of disturbing humans, and in Tamil shamanic traditions, she was sometimes invoked to bring harm to one’s enemies.

AI generated image showing Kateri worship by early ancestors

Over time, early settlers who lived near such spirits would have performed rituals to appease them, seeking protection and blessings. Through generations, these spirits became kula deivams — family guardian deities — for those bloodlines. Sacred pacts or spiritual agreements would have been made between them and the Kateri.

This is why venerating a deity like Kateri without ancestral connection can be dangerous. If I were to meditate upon her or invoke her in my home without lineage ties, it could lead to chaos. But for those whose families have long worshipped her as their kula deivam, her presence brings protection, not harm.

So think carefully before venerating Kateri. These are not deities meant for everyone — they belong to those whose bloodlines are bound to them.

AI generated art depicting a Kateri inside a forest

Awang Hitam: The Forgotten Guardian of the Malay Spiritual World

AI generated artistic impression of Awang Hitam

Today, Malays in Malaysia are Muslims. However, the Islamization of the Malays did not happen overnight. It was a gradual process that unfolded over several centuries, probably beginning around the 13th century, and gained strong momentum during the rise of several sultanates such as Aceh Sultanate, Pasai Sultanate, Patani Sultanate, Demak Sultanate and Malacca Sultanate. This period came after the fall of the Srivijaya empire and the later Majapahit empire. The Srivijaya Empire was known for its patronage of Mahayana Buddhism, while Majapahit supported the Saiva Hindu tradition, also known as Saivism.

Before the influence of Mahayana or Saiva traditions, the Malays would have had their own indigenous religion. It likely involved the worship of nature spirits and ancestors. Over time, elements of this early belief system may have blended with the Buddhist and Hindu practices that arrived later. Both Saivism and Mahayana Buddhism are deeply rooted in Tantric teachings and share many similarities in deities and symbolism. Although they differ in philosophy, the deities they venerate are often the same.

Mahakala from Candi Singhasari, Indonesia.
Image Credit: Singhasari Museum

During the height of Srivijaya and Majapahit, the worship of Tantric deities was very common. People revered not only major deities such as Siva, Vishnu, Ganesa, Durga, Avalokitesvara, and Vairocana but also attendant deities of Siva like Nandisvara and Mahakala. Nandisvara is often depicted as white, while Mahakala is black. 

The name Mahakala literally means “Great Time” or “Great Black.” He is known as one of Siva’s loyal attendants (Rudra/Siva Gana) and serves as a guardian, either as a dvarapala (door protector) or kshetrapala (guardian of sacred grounds). Both figures are mentioned in the Saiva scriptures known as the Saivagamas.

In Tamil folk tradition, Nandisvara is known as Madan or Madasamy, the bull deity, while Mahakala is revered as Periya Karuppar, the great black deity. They continue to function as guardian deities in rural temples and are deeply respected by the people.

When we look back at the pre-Islamic Malay world, it is not surprising to find similar names and figures in their local spiritual practices. The white bull of Nandisvara may have survived in the Malay imagination as Lembu Putih, while Mahakala could have continued in another form known as Awang Hitam.

AI generated artistic impression of  Awang Hitam 

In Malay bomoh (shaman) practice, Awang Hitam is described as a powerful spiritual helper or guardian spirit, often appearing as a dark, shadowy male figure who assists the bomoh in rituals of healing, protection, and sometimes sorcery. 

The word Awang has several meanings. It can be used as a respectful male title, similar to “Mr,” or to refer to a male child or "fellow". The word hitam means black. Therefore, the name Awang Hitam, meaning “Black Fellow,” reflects both his mysterious nature and his connection to the unseen world, which closely resembles the Mahakala archetype.

Awang Hitam is believed to originate from ancestral spirits, ancient warriors, or elemental beings. He is also called as Hitam Seri Penakluk meaning "The Illustrious Black Conqueror". 

There is also another guardian known as Datuk Panglima Hitam meaning "Black Commander". He is venerated by the Mah Meri tribe of Selangor. A special prayer will be conducted for him on the first day of their annual Hari Moyang (ancestor's day).

Celebration ceremony of Datuk Panglima Hitam. 
Image credit: zafigo

Karuppar, the Tamil equivalent of Awang Hitam or Dato Panglima Hitam.
Picture credit suji suji

Awang Hitam embodies strength, loyalty, and spiritual authority. The bomoh may invoke him through trance or chanting to guard against evil, retrieve lost souls, or empower charms. However, his power must be treated with respect, as he can protect or harm depending on how he is approached. In Malay mysticism, Awang Hitam represents the delicate balance between light and darkness that every spiritual practitioner must understand.

From the Islamic perspective, invoking Awang Hitam or other spirits is considered syirik, meaning an act of associating partners with God, and is strictly forbidden. The Muslims also consider such guardians as Jinns. As a result, these practices have largely faded today. However, in earlier centuries, they were still known among traditional healers. 

The British scholar R.J Wilkinson wrote down about these spirits in his book Malay Beliefs (1906). Similarly R. O. Winstedt documented these traditions in his book Shaman, Saiva and Sufi: A Study of the Evolution of Malay Magic (1924).  These writings offers a glimpse into a time when Hindu, Buddhist, and indigenous Malay beliefs once blended before Islam became the defining faith of the Malay people.

On land we have one supreme divinity who is in some mysterious way associated with the colour black, as the "Black Youth" (awang hitam) or the "Black Spirit" (jin hitam, hantu hitam), the King of the Earth, whose foot is on the heart of the world and whose hands are on the gate of heaven. The four deities of the sea and the one "black deity" of the land represent in all, probability the Gods of some ancient local race whose blood runs in the veins of the Malays.

R.J Wilkinson

In the Malay pantheon there is a mysterious black Awang, addressed by actors as king of the earth, who "walks along the veins of the earth and sleeps at its gate." Apparently, therefore, he is identified with Siva, and this identification, if correct, suggests a high place for this forgotten figure of some early cult. But in a Proto−Malay charm to propitiate the aforesaid spirits of the sea, Warrior Awang figures as their servant, who climbs the mast of ship in distress, a young man with "hairy chest, red eyes, black skin and frizzy hair." A Kelantan charm, also, depicts him as a haunter of forest undergrowth, "a span in height, with bald temples, frizzy hair, red eyes, white teeth, broad chest, and feet and hands disfigured with skin disease." This is a good picture of a Negrito, member of the oldest race in Malaysia, but it may be a posthumous description as applied to this god or godling of a primitive cult, who rides the storm and can cause ague and disease.

R. O. Winstedt

Do you have any personal reflections or opinions on the tales of Awang Hitam? Perhaps you know of local variants of the stories, or have additional historical or cultural context that could shed more light on this figure?

Please share your thoughts and any information you may have in the comments section. 

Kula Deivam Worship and The Bicycle Analogy

Some people ask:

"I don’t worship my kula deivam. I don’t perform rituals as my ancestors did. Yet, I seem to be living a better life. In fact, I am wealthier than those who continue their kula deivam worship. How is this possible?"

Maha Periyava once explained karma using the example of a bicycle, and the same can be applied here.

When you ride a bicycle, after pedalling for some time, the wheel continues to move even if you stop pedalling. You can still cover some distance without any effort because of the momentum you already built up.

This is your present life. You may not worship your kula deivam, but your ancestors did so sincerely and wholeheartedly. 

The blessings and fruits of their devotion are what you are enjoying now. The “bicycle” is still moving because they pedalled hard for you.

But remember...no bicycle can keep moving forever without pedalling. Eventually, it slows down. 

In the same way, if you do not continue your kula deivam worship, the blessings will diminish, and your children or grandchildren may suffer the loss.

So, the responsibility falls on you, not only to enjoy the smooth ride but also to “start pedalling” again. 

Your worship today ensures that the cycle of blessings continues for future generations.

Don't Just Grab a Plate: Virunthu vs Annadhanam

Sri Muniswarar temple at Jalan Baru, Prai. 
Image Source: Penang Travel Tips

Temples are amazing places. They're for praying, but they're also where all kinds of events happen. From huge public festivals to small, private family events, there's always something going on. And with all those events comes food. But not all temple food is the same, and knowing the difference can save you a whole lot of awkwardness.

Think of temple events in two simple categories:

Private Events: These are booked by families for their personal ceremonies, like an ear-piercing, an engagement, or a wedding. They rent the hall and pay for everything.

Public Events: These are things everyone's invited to, like common prayers or big festivals like tiruvizha. When you go to these, the food served afterward is for anyone and everyone.

The food at these events also has two names, and this is where it gets important:

Virunthu: This is the food served at a private event. It's paid for by the host for their invited guests. You don't just show up and grab the briyani unless you were on the guest list.

Annadhanam: This is the food served for the public. It's meant for anyone who wants to eat, no invitation needed. This is the food you can freely enjoy after a common prayer or during a big public festival like tiruvizha.

Here's the problem: A lot of people see food at a temple and just assume it's annadhanam, for the public. But that’s not always the case, and it's a huge mistake.

Picture this....You go to a Mariamman temple on a Saturday morning. You see a family conducting ear pericing ceremony with a big group of relatives, and there’s food in the hall. You might think, “Oh, free breakfast!” But you'd be wrong. That’s a virunthu. That family booked the hall and paid for all that food for their guests. Walking in and eating would be like crashing their event.

So next time you're at a temple and you see food, take a second. Is it a public event, or does it look like a private family function? Don't just assume every meal is a public offering. Respect the people who paid for the food and the guests they invited.

I've been going to temples for years, and I've never had a single issue with food because I stick to a simple rule: I only eat if I'm specifically invited to an event or if the host makes it clear it's an annadhanam for everyone. 

It’s a simple courtesy that shows respect for both the temple and the people who use it.